Professional Animal Scientist: CASE STUDY: Phenomenological Study of a University Horse Population f

Abstract

Equine research and education represent a large part of animal science and veterinary medicine worldwide. The uses of, and management approach to, a horse population at a university may influence the success of research and educational programs. The aim of this study was to provide an initial inquiry into the use and management of horses in research and education at a university. Using a phenomenological approach, which involves exploring participants' views on a situation without any prior assumptions, 18 in-depth interviews were conducted with faculty and staff members involved within equine research and education at a university. Information was gathered describing the use and management of the horse population. A framework method of analysis was used to categorize the responses into themes. A total of 180 horses housed at four locations, including three farms, provided 100 hectares and 141 individual stalls for regular use in teaching and research. Three themes were categorized from the interviews: horse population and uses, human interaction, and finances. There was a shared belief that the current horse population was "essential" in the realization of teaching and research programs and that without horses the equine programs would not be attractive or able to exist. Opinions on other topics were mixed. For instance, personalities often dictated whether collaborations were formed, and finances were generally considered limiting for teaching but not for research. Despite current budget restrictions, farms were managed to prioritize teaching requirements, research objectives, and safety rather than profitability. Improvements in the use of horses at a university may benefit from addressing communication issues among personnel, evaluating the impact of the perception that funding is less available for teaching than for research, and developing an appropriate farming model.

(Key Words: Education, Horses, Management, Research, Teaching.)

Introduction

The horse industry is a large and important part of the United States' national, state, and local economies, impacting several sectors including agriculture, business, sport, gambling, entertainment, and recreation (Bowen, 1996). With an increase of mechanization over the last century, causing a decline in horse numbers, the concurrent increase in leisure time has been associated with a resurgence of the equine population for purposes of competition and recreation (Barker, 1983). At the same time, as the background of the owners has become less agricultural, more educational programs are required (Swanson, 1996), both to maintain health and to improve performance of horses for competition.

To increase knowledge through research, approximately $1.5 million is provided each year, primarily to universities, with $1.2 million coming from associations that emphasize research in equine areas (e.g., Grayson-Jockey Club Research Foundation); only $220,000 has come from the US government (Bowen, 1996). Although a more recent total figure has not been published, government funding was greater, at approximately $1.2 million in 2001, but this was considered a small amount when compared with funding provided for research on other animals (Wenholz, 2003). For the '1996' publication year, 'USA' affiliations and 'horse' or 'horses' in the titles and abstracts of a scientific database (Pubmed; National Center for Biotechnology Information, 2003) listed 312 published papers, which suggests that there is a vast amount of research presumably requiring funding, which is well in excess of this $1.5 million. Consequently, research in areas such as medicine, surgery, fertility, and management performed by Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine Departments must be funded by other sources, such as intramural funds, private donations, and industry. Some of the costs for scientific research are offset by the educational roles of universities, a role which is also a key factor in the development of the equine industry.

Horses are a key component in equine research and education at universities. To measure the effectiveness of their use, it may be valuable to apply a management model. Within a university, measuring management effectiveness in areas including student learning, development of knowledge, and profitability may be beneficial, but existing recommendations or models emphasize management with respect to maximizing productivity (de Hoop, 1988; Bacon, 1996; Rougoor et al., 1998). Nevertheless, the use of horses at a university has not been previously addressed, and research into this area may be of benefit in directing future work to understand and improve the management of horses in enhancing education and research outcomes. Hence, the aim of this study is to provide an initial inquiry into the role of horses for education and research at a university.

Methods

This study was performed with the approval of the University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects, and all subjects provided written informed consents. As issues in managing the use of horses within a university have not been previously studied, a phenomenological approach to investigating this topic was deemed appropriate because it allows the researcher to cater to the evolving nature and direction of responses. This consisted of four stages.

Preparation. General information was gathered regarding the structure of the equine programs and relationships between different programs at Michigan State University through inquiries and Internet and literature searches. Eighteen subjects, recruited from university faculty and staff who were involved with horses, were sampled using the 'snowballing' method (i.e., identify one subject, ask him or her to recommend additional subjects; Taylor and Bogdan, 1998). To determine the sample size, data were analyzed within 2 d, and when few new views emerged, no more subjects were required (Taylor and Bogdan, 1998). The identity of the subjects was treated as strictly confidential.

Interviews. Using a phenomenological approach (i.e., describing and clarifying subjects' views on a situation without any previous assumptions of their meaning; Baumgartner and Strong, 1998), in-depth interviews were used as the main tool for collecting data. In accordance with this approach, interview questions and themes emerged throughout the study. Interviews were conducted at subjects' locations, which offered a convenient and practical setting that is conducive to obtaining quality data. all interviews were conducted by the same interviewer. With the subjects' agreement, responses were recorded on audiocassette, supplemented by written notes. Tape recordings were transcribed within 2 d of recording. Documents or records provided by subjects were analyzed primarily to obtain numerical data.

Data Analysis and Reliability. The interview responses were subjected to the 'framework' method of analysis (Richie and Spencer, 1994). The five key stages of this method (i.e., familiarization, identifying a thematic framework, indexing, charting, and mapping and interpretation) were used to identify themes for categorizing interviewees' responses. To clarify these themes, quotations and numerical findings consisting of frequency counts were provided. Emerging themes describing the phenomena were also supported by previous literature, and their fit to existing theories was examined.

Reliability and Validity. Control checks were used to assess the internal reliability and validity of the responses (Baumgartner and Strong, 1998). This involved seeking subjects' opinions on a preliminary draft of the manuscript, and these comments were used to confirm or rephrase the interviewees' intended meanings.

Results and Discussion

During the interviews, themes arising were organized into three categories: horse population and uses, human interaction, and finances. These themes summarize the main features of the interviewees' topics. There are some similarities among these themes with aspects of the existing farm management models. For example, the human interaction theme may share features with the decision-making aspect of Rougoor et al. (1998), and the finances theme relates to the economic focus of Bacon (1996). Nevertheless, none of the existing models encompass the overall themes that emerged, and, as such, it is not appropriate to discuss these themes with respect to these models directly.

Interviewees believed that it was "extremely important," "essential," "critical," "valuable," "nice," and "understandable" for the university to own horses. The overall opinion was that, without horses, none of the equine programs in teaching and research would be as attractive or even possible. Recorded comments included: "As students nowadays have less animal experience, we need to be able to offer them the opportunity" and "application is everything." These were considered key elements in education according to the survey.

Horse Population and Uses. Horses are used at Michigan State University primarily by two departments: Large Animal Clinical Sciences in the College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science in the College of Agriculture and Natural Resources. The 18 interviewees included farm managers, administrative staff, teachers, researchers, clinicians, and professors, but no students or clients. Personnel who were involved with horses or had an influence on the use of horses were categorized by roles rather than by departments. The three groups were principals (n = 9, i.e., individuals in charge of finances and management of a horse population or farm and who may have used horses for research and teaching), users (n = 4, i.e., individuals who used horses for teaching or research), and associates (n = 5, i.e., individuals who assisted principals and users). all principals were interviewed, whereas a smaller proportion of potential users and associates were interviewed.

A total of 180 horses were housed at four principal sites: a farm with 80 stalls located on 32 ha at a distance of 95 km from the main campus, a farm with 46 stalls located on 40 ha within the campus, a farm with 28 ha of pasture and shelters located on the campus, and 15 stalls located at a research and instruction facility on campus primarily used for temporary housing. Horses owned by the university were bought, donated, or self-bred; all ages were represented from foal to >20 yr old. The horse breeds represented primarily consisted of (with approximate numbers) Arabian (n = 78), Quarter Horse (n = 35), and Thoroughbred (n = 10) horses. These breeds were used in the breeding program that originated from donated horses. Other current breeds were Belgian Draft (n = 5), Standardbreds (n = 6), and Andalusians (n = 2); the remaining horses were of other or unknown breeds (n = 44). The principal roles of these horses, as described in Table 1, were in breeding, research, teaching (e.g., veterinary practice, horsemanship, healthcare), and public relations (e.g., extension, shows, parades). In addition, the horses and farms were perceived and used as a 'model of good practice' in various extension and outreach programs. Horses presented for euthanasia at the veterinary hospital were not included, but these were considered valuable sources of anatomical and pathological specimens for teaching and research.

To fulfill their role in teaching and research, "The first requirement is that horses are safe and willing to do what is asked." From a research standpoint, it was considered desirable to have multiple horses with, for example, comparable traits, disease, or lameness, but according to the experiences of the interviewees, obtaining a sufficient number of similar horses for these purposes was often difficult.

Although each horse had a principal occupation, it was also considered that "horses have to do at least two jobs." This may facilitate a more optimal use of the horses between departments. But again, fulfilling two or more jobs with different requirements was not always easy. Furthermore, it was not possible for one horse to perform all roles: when teaching lameness, lame horses are needed, whereas sound horses are preferred for horsemanship classes. As an alternative to increasing the university-owned population, "In some projects, private horses were considered as suitable subjects. . .depending on the goal or intensity of the project;" however, recruiting these horses was not always easy as "it is difficult for horse owners to understand the methodology of science" [from survey].

A large number of the horses at the breeding farms included young stock (n = 32 that were

During the interviews, personnel expressed dedication and personal engagement in their work. Farm managers and technicians were primarily in charge of the daily management and periodical healthcare of the horses. Horses were "as much as possible housed outside as it improves their health, and stabling of horses is only temporary." Horses were maintained according to animal use guidelines, in accordance with the Animal Welfare Act that protects vertebrate animals from inhumane treatment and neglect. For research, the all University Committee on Animal Use and Care assures that these animal use guidelines are followed by thorough review of protocols. all research, teaching, and outreach activities must receive committee approval or be exempted from approval prior to beginning projects. A precise definition of a suitable workload for the horses did not exist, and, consequently, all interviewees provided varying descriptions on the level of the workload of horses. Nevertheless, the principals were careful not to overwork horses and considered it important to take care of them, as otherwise horses "get sour and useless when they are asked to do too much or do not fit the job." It was considered that "the researcher has an ethical responsibility to publish and use resulting data," and "the university has a very good reputation, national and international, in animal research and should maintain this by publication of papers and presentations at conferences." This may clarify a positive incentive or goal that the "bottom line for everyone...should be to strive for the premier equine program in the country." "Growth", "status," and "quality" were descriptors provided by interviewees, depending on stage of development of their particular aspect of equine provision.

Human Interactions. Relationships among principals, users, and associates were obviously important and varied from supportive to competitive. Principals of housing facilities, who did not own horses, for example, were dependent on principals who owned horses as a main source of income, as "without this number of horses, it would be impossible to keep the farm." However, the political influence on decisions could not be ignored, as both departments had their own management, policies, budget, and responsibilities. The personalities of staff and faculty appeared to be decisive factors in determining relationships and in making many of the decisions.

Opinions of the interviewees on the interactions were both intuitive and supported by previous literature. From a management perspective, there should be a clear mechanism for communication and decision making. However, in practice, interviewees considered that "formal meetings are a waste of time in busy schedules and not necessary, as people know what they have to know," and "people are informed by those with whom they have a good relationship." In the absence of a "good relationship," there will be less communication, and temporary avoidance is the most common expression in situations of conflict (Morrill, 1992), which is supported by the consideration that "people tend to avoid each other in struggling relationships." A lack of any relationship was reflected in some comments: "Horses from that farm are not used because we do not know the people there very well and it is too far away." In other instances, it was not the lack of a relationship but "fear," "disrespect," or "jealousy" that potentially threatened professional relationships. Such conflict is considered a part of the social fabric of organizations, which is affected by interpretation and communication (Bartunek et al., 1992). The level of communication may be affected by several factors. First, "individualism may be the nature of research," which may restrict communication, but it was still considered that "there is willingness to collaborate and communicate." second, self-interest is enhanced by identification with the organization's goal and working within its framework is important to make decisions (Simon, 1992). Third, the bounded rationality model may apply, where new decisions are only made when a certain level of dissatisfaction of the work situation is reached (Simon, 1982). In general, to emphasize a deficiency in communication, some interviewees could not estimate the number of horses within their section. Nevertheless, interviewees also considered that many existing relationships were well maintained and proposals to enhance developments in teaching were continually proposed, evaluated, and implemented.

Each program or laboratory had its own goals and resources, which gave them an individual character, but all were connected in one way or another. Partnerships between the two departments were less likely for some interviewees than for others. "Budget cuts changed policies," and horse owners were forced to charge users to cover the costs. It was also considered that "we have to pool our resources," but "sharing should not endanger the well-being of the horses." Sharing horses and other resources had been essential for some and unfavorable for others. "Injuries after experiments is part of the risk and may be caused by the limited physiological capacity of some horses, [but] other information, such as medical problems, may be discovered, which is beneficial for the owners." Other research studies were done without live horses, as collaboration resulted in improved technologies using other species or tissue samples, sometimes also resulting in decreased costs.

"As soon as services and resources are shared within colleges or departments, problems may occur when payments are involved." Several compensations were mentioned in collaboration (e.g., knowledge, friendship, co-authorship), but money had become increasingly important since budget cuts had occurred. "Collaboration is a good thing, but it is a harder way to do research as it needs more time and effort. Good collaboration needs a legal binding, such as payment or other benefit." Lack of clear rules, varying relationships, and changing situations had affected the nature of collaborations. Examples of collaborations provided were guest lectures and sharing in facilities, equipment, and technology. Also, transportation of horses from the farms to the instruction and research facilities became more organized and shared, as this was not a free service anymore. Interviewees were positive about collaborations. For examples, the following sentiment was expressed: "The public...may vary from a veterinarian through to a layperson, and the two colleges have a complimentary educational relationship in the dissemination of knowledge as they speak two different languages."

Finances. "It's all a matter of money." all interviewees emphasized the importance of financing in maintaining programs and fulfilling objectives. "Budget cuts have their influence on the university as a whole and on the individual departments," and the effects of these cuts make it difficult to maintain some programs. "The veterinary teaching herd was reduced from 20 to 10 horses, which is the absolute minimum," and "we have the least number of horses for many years, but the workload for the horses did not become less" (italics added). The remaining horses must work harder, and the sharing of horses and establishment of collaborations becomes more difficult. Budget cuts seem to have had a particularly negative impact upon teaching, whereas researchers seemed to be satisfied with horse numbers, as "we have sufficient horses available" was a comment shared. This is likely attributable to different funding sources, with programs that rely heavily on state funding being hit harder by the current recession (National Bureau of Economic Research, 2001). One comment recorded included: "This is a Land Grant University, which is supposed to be state supported, but has become state assisted instead;" a diversity of other financial sources was subsequently named, including student tuition, private funding, endowments, sales of horses, services, and per diems. Success in securing some of these funds is not only difficult because of the specialized nature of equine education and research, but also because of the competence and reputation of the individuals and the university as a whole. The possible reduction in facilities and horses was considered to negatively affect "reputation," which would make securing lucrative funds more difficult.

In addition to external funding, a number of points were raised about internal money transfers. Often the cost of boarding was shared by different users on a per diem system, which "increases every year by 3 to 5% due to inflation; we live in a culture where prices go up and this is accepted." Although it was considered that the charge of "more than $5/d for pasture boarding is excessive," in an economic sense, this may not be excessive, as boarding costs of a horse per day for horse operations in the state of Michigan averaged $5.4 (Michigan Equine Monitoring Service, 1992). Others believed that because horses are a shared resource, "it would be better to charge nothing." The need for accountability for costs varied in other areas also. For instance, medical treatment within the university veterinary hospital varied between departments, although it was perceived that ongoing efforts to "work together" and "compromise" were favorable in charging reasonable costs.

Budgets and state support have changed over time. "In the last few years, we had a huge increase in equine teaching and research," and "new programs were started up and others could, for example, expand in faculty and facilities." Despite additional external funding in the past, budgets had become tight or not available in some situations, particularly with respect to education. The ability to influence the management of resources, for example, by establishing connections and participating in committees, was identified as a powerful tool to control developments and achieve objectives. "To achieve things you have to play the political games and be involved in important committees which decide about money, buildings, and land." Such initiatives were considered important, particularly as growth in other university departments had resulted in expansion of university buildings and "a reduction of land resulted in sharing pasture, and higher costs for extra supplemented feed." "Maintaining sufficient land is necessary for low cost boarding" because "keeping horses is expensive."

Summary. The current and overall position of the 18 personnel interviewed at this university maybe reflected in the following:

"From a department standpoint, the farms have traditionally been, and will continue to be in the future, a high priority to be actively involved in teaching and research programs. Farms are very expensive to maintain, but are a priority. Responsibilities of the farm management go first to the mission of the department and then to profitability. You cannot sacrifice safety, for example. You have to make decisions and delay some plans, as it's a tough time budget wise."

Implications

Horses at the university were considered to play a "vital" role in equine-related research and educational programs for fulfilling individual, department, and university objectives. The diversity of programs required horses that ideally would provide "universal use;" however, it was often difficult to select individual horses for multiple purposes. Despite current budget restrictions, farms were managed to prioritize teaching requirements, research objectives, and safety rather than profitability. In analyzing interviewees' responses, three major themes emerged: horse population and uses, human interactions, and finances. The diversity of uses of horses, the importance of collaborations for research and teaching, and varying sources of finances were all key issues in the management of the use of horses at this university. These themes and issues are quite different from components of existing farm management models, warranting development of an alternative model that maybe of use in enhancing animal science and veterinary medicine education and research. Although this phenomenological study is appropriate for an initial inquiry into a topic, the results should now be used to help develop a survey of the use of horses at universities.

1 This project was funded by the McPhail Endowment.

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A. VAN IWAARDEN2, H. M. CLAYTON, and D. R. MULLINEAUX3

Mary Anne McPhail Equine Performance Center, Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing 48824-1314

2 Present address: Larenstein University, Brinkgreverweg 69, Deventer, The Netherlands.

3 To whom correspondence should be addressed: mullinea@cvm.msu.edu