This investigation compared the prevalence rates of pathological and problem gambling between Greek-affiliated and non-Greek-affiliated college students. The 954 participants volunteered to take the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS; Lesieur & Blume, 1987), which measures gambling disorders. A statistically significant association was found between problem gambling and male Greek-affiliated students.
Pathological gambling is a disorder that affects many Americans. According to the American Psychiatric Association (1994, p. 615), pathological gambling is persistent and recurrent maladaptive gambling behavior that disrupts personal, family, and vocational pursuits. A more inclusive category of gambler, one that includes all patterns of gambling behavior that may compromise, disrupt, or damage family, personal, or vocational pursuits is problem gambling (Lesieur & Rosenthal, 1991). Problem gambling categorizes the gambler as at risk for pathological gambling. In other words, the problem gambler does not demonstrate the five or more behaviors that would suggest pathological gambling behavior.
Previous research has suggested that the prevalence rate of "probable pathological gamblers" in the United States is between 1.4% and 3.4% (Culleton, 1985; Sommers, 1988; Volberg & Steadman, 1988, 1989). A recent meta-analytical study performed by Shaffer, Hall, and Vander Bilt (1999) that included 134 studies from the United States and Canada suggested the prevalence rates of lifetime pathological gambling among adults range between 1.5% and 1.6%.
Although pathological gambling can infiltrate all segments of society, research has suggested that college students are particularly susceptible to the risks of pathological gambling. According to Shaffer et al. (1999), being a college student is a significant risk factor for pathological gambling. In the same study, Shaffer et al. suggested that 5.05% of United States college students are pathological gamblers. In a study that measured gambling among college students attending three universities in Minnesota, Winters, Bengston, Dorr, and Stinchfield (1998) found that nearly 3.0% of their subjects were probable pathological gamblers. Additional research (Lesieur et al., 1991) has suggested the rates of probable pathological gambling among college students are 4 to 8 times higher than the rest of the adult population. Frank (1990) reported prevalence rates of probable pathological gambling for college students attending a college in New Jersey to be 6.0%. In another study, Ladouceur, Dubé, and Bujold (1994) found the prevalence rates of probable pathological gambling among college students in Quebec City to be 2.8%.
A subsegment of the college student population is the Greek-affiliated students. Greek affiliation refers to those students who belong to fraternities or sororities (named using Greek letters). The Greek system began during the 18th and 19th centuries when education was very rigid and structured. Fraternities were created to meet the social needs of the students. The goals of fraternities were to foster friendships, encourage sociability, and provide an outlet for free expression (Jones, 1976). Although fraternity and sorority involvement is mainly an American phenomenon, it has spread to several universities in Canada. In fact, according to the North American Intrafraternity Conference (n.d.), approximately 66 fraternities have 5500 chapters on 800 campuses in the United States and Canada. Similarly, 26 sororities belonging to the National Panhellenic Conference (n.d.) have chapters on 620 college campuses in North America.
Few researchers have analyzed the impact of the Greek affiliation on gambling participation. LaBrie, Shaffer, LaPlante, and Wechsler (2003) found that members of fraternities or sororities were more likely to gamble than non-Greek-affiliated college students. In an article in Sports Illustrated, Layden (1995) suggested gambling is "running rampant" through the Greek systems on college campuses. Although he did not elaborate on what "running rampant" meant, Layden hypothesized many fraternity members are gamblers because their families have higher incomes, so they in turn have more discretionary money. Previous researchers (Frank, 1990; Kallick-Kaufman, 1979; Ladouceur et al., 1994; Lesieur et al., 1991; Volberg, 1996) that examined this hypothesis has been inconclusive pertaining to the impact of family income on pathological and problem gambling.
In the current study, we hypothesized other factors might be involved that impact the prevalence rates of pathological and problem gambling among Greek-affiliated students. Alcohol abuse, peer pressure, and an enabling environment may predispose Greek-affiliated students to pathological and problem gambling. A positive correlation has been found between alcohol abuse and gambling problems (Ladouceur et al., 1994; Lesieur et al., 1991). Previous research (Cashin, Presley, & Meilman, 1998) also has suggested that Greek-affiliated students averaged more drinks per week, engaged in heavy drinking, and suffered more consequences than non-Greek-affiliated students. In an additional study (Wechsler, Dowdall, Maener, Gledhill-Hoyt, & Lee, 1998), 81% of fraternity and sorority members were found to be binge drinkers. Based upon these previous studies, we hypothesized that Greek-affiliated students may also have an increased likelihood of developing gambling problems.
Two other factors that may influence the prevalence rates of pathological and problem gambling among Greek-affiliated students are peer pressure and an enabling environment. These factors are an important part of social norms theory (Berkowitz, 2003), which is often used to explain group behavior. According to the authors of the social norm theory (Perkins & Berkowitz, 1986), one's behavior is influenced by incorrect perceptions of how other members of one's social groups think and act and that these incorrect perceptions lead to overcompensation to live up to that incorrect perception. Sher, Bartholow, and Nanda (2001) found that the misperceptions of heavy drinking in the Greek system are largely responsible for the prevalence of heavy drinking among fraternity and sorority members. Layden (1995) stated that Greek-affiliated students might have a high rate of problem gambling because of the Greek community. The fraternity house in particular provides a location to share tales of gambling and receive recognition for gambling successes. A case of using an enabling environment and peer pressure occurred during the 1990s at Arizona State University. A sportscaster and bookie recruited four fraternity brothers to solicit bets. Of their 245 betting accounts, 200 belonged to college students; 140 belonged to fraternity members and 60 belonged to other students at the university (Layden, 1995).
Winters et al. (1998) suggested that there is a need for prevalence studies to measure possible psychosocial variables that could lead to problem gambling. Greek affiliation in this case is a psychosocial variable that may impact gambling behavior of college students. The majority of the research on Greek-affiliated students has explored such maladaptive behaviors as alcohol abuse and hazing; however, no previous studies have explored problem gambling.
The primary purpose of this study was to compare, using the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS; Lesieur & Blume, 1987) the prevalence rates of probable pathological and problem gambling between Greek-affiliated and non-Greek-affiliated students. The researchers for this study posited that the rates for Greek-affiliated students would be higher than the rates for non-Greek-affiliated students.
METHOD
Participants
The data for this investigation were obtained from students who attended nine large state universities located throughout the south-eastern United States. The participants were all enrolled in first aid or health and safety classes during the Spring 1998 semester. These particular classes were chosen because many universities offer them, a diverse body of students enroll in them, and they typically have a large enrollment.
Because the survey was administered during class time, the participation rate was very high (95%). Nine hundred fifty-four students representing nine universities volunteered to participate in the study. Based upon estimates in Petersons Guide to American Colleges and Universities (1997), 17.0% of men and 21.0% of women attending the schools were members of a fraternity or sorority (Table 1). For this study, Greek-affiliated students were defined as any participant who was at the time of the study a member of a fraternity or sorority.
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Table 2, which shows the demographic characteristics of the sample, indicates that approximately 28.0% of the respondents were Greek affiliated. Almost 9% of the respondents were male Greek-affiliated students and 19.0% were female Greek-affiliated students. Although more women participated in this study [χ^sup 2^(1) = 83.3, p
Instrumentation
The SOGS was administered to each participant, because according to Shaffer et al. (1999), it is the most widely used instrument to measure pathological and problem gambling. This screening tool is based on the seven criteria for pathological gambling proposed by the American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd ed.). Lesieur and Blume (1987) found the SOGS to be both reliable and valid (r = 0.06, df = 125, p
One criticism of the SOGS is that it leads to a number of misclassifications, including classifying nonpathological gamblers as pathological (Dickerson, 1993; Dickerson & Hinchy, 1988; Lesieur, 1994; Volberg & Banks, 1990; Walker, 1992; Walker & Dickerson, 1996). Despite this limitation, the SOGS is still widely used to measure probable pathological and problem gambling.
Students were also asked to report demographic information including Greek affiliation, family income, gender, race, and age. Such demographic information as Greek affiliation, family income, gender, and friends with perceived gambling problems were used as independent variables to analyze the dependent variables, problem and pathological gambling.
Procedure
The surveys were mailed to a contact person at each participating university. The contact person, an instructor or professor, distributed the surveys to the participants during class time. In addition, to encourage honest responses, subject anonymity was assured by requiring that no subject names appear on the surveys and that the surveys were coded to indicate only university affiliation. The contact person mailed the completed surveys back to us.
Data Analysis
Frequency rates and cross tabulations were calculated to allow the researchers to establish prevalence rates of gambling for the sub-categories of participants. Pearson chi-square tests were performed to determine if associations existed between the independent and dependent variables. For any Pearson chisquare tests that were found to be significant (p
RESULTS
Eighty-two percent of the Greek-affiliated students and 80.5% of the non-Greek-affiliated students surveyed reported that they gambled. Approximately 4.7% of the Greek-affiliated and 2.9% of the non-Greek students surveyed scored in the probable pathological range on the SOGS (Table 3). Furthermore, 5.4% of the Greek-affiliated and 3.0% of the non-Greek students scored in the problem range. Although Greeks demonstrated higher prevalence rates of both probable pathological and problem gambling, no significant associations between Greek affiliation and gambling problems were found.
When male and females were analyzed separately, differences were found. Similar to the previously mentioned findings, male Greek-affiliated students were found to have a higher prevalence rate (12.3%) of probable pathological gambling than male non-Greek-affiliated students (5.8%). Male Greek-affiliated students also had a higher prevalence rate of probable problem gambling than male non-Greek-affiliated students, 14.8% and 5.4%, respectively. On the other hand, female non-Greek and Greek-affiliated students exhibited similar prevalence rates of probable pathological (1.2% and 1.1%) and probable problem (1.7% and 1.1%) gambling.
We found a statistically significant association between Greek affiliation, gender, and gambling. A statistically significant association was found between fraternity members (male Greeks) and probable problem gambling, χ^sup 2^(1, n = 321) = 8.71, p
The most common group identified by participants as having a perceived gambling problem was "friends or someone else important in their life." Approximately 17.0% of the respondents answered using this response (Table 4). Similarly, "friends or someone else important in their life" was the response most commonly given by both Greek and non-Greek-affiliated students for the person in their lives who had a perceived gambling problem. Twenty-three percent of the Greek-affiliated students provided this response, whereas 14.1% of non-Greek-affiliated students did. No statistically significant associations were found between Greek affiliation, friends with a perceived gambling problem, and problem and pathological gambling.
The majority of the participants responded that they gambled relatively small amounts of money during the day that they gambled the largest amount of money. Almost 89.0% of the participants indicated they gambled less than $100 during that day (Table 5). Approximately, 40.0% of the Greek-affiliated students responded that they gambled between $10 and $100, compared to 30.9% of the non-Greek-affiliated students gambled between $10 and $100. Although the majority of Greek-affiliated and non-Greek-affiliated students gambled between $10 and $100, a significant association was found between Greek-affiliated students and the amount of money gambled [χ^sup 2^(6, N = 921) = 14.71, p
Family income was measured to determine whether there was a significant association between family income and probable pathological and problem gambling. Family income was found not to be associated with probable pathological gambling, [χ^sup 2^(1, N = 830) = 0.08, p = 0.78]. Conversely, a high family income (above $80,000) was found to be significantly associated with probable problem gambling [χ^sup 2^(1, N = 801) = 6.07, p
Family income, Greek affiliation, and gambling were investigated to determine if there were any significant associations with probable pathological and problem gambling. No significant association was found between family income, Greek affiliation, and pathological gambling. Of the 11 Greek-affiliated students who answered this question and were found to be probable pathological gamblers, 46.0% (n = 5) were classified in the lower income group (below $80,000) and 54.0% (n = 6) were classified in the higher income group (above $80,000). Of the 17 non-Greek-affiliated students who were found to be probable pathological gamblers 59.0% (n - 10) were categorized in the lower income group, and 41.0% (n = 7) were categorized in the higher income group.
Although no significant associations were found for family income, Greek affiliation, and probable pathological gambling, a statistically significant association was found for probable problem gambling [χ^sup 2^(1, N = 795) = 6.73, p
Using point-biserial correlations, scores on the SOGS were positively correlated to males (r^sub pb^ = 0.28, N = 954, p
DISCUSSION
The results of the study suggest that Greek affiliation is a psychosocial variable that warrants further investigation, particularly in males. The results suggest that gender impacts the prevalence rates of gambling as well as probable problem and pathological gambling. These findings are consistent with previous research (Browne & Brown, 1994; LaBrie et al., 2003; Ladouceur et al., 1994; Lesieur et al., 1991; Lesieur & Klein, 1987; National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2004; Rockey, Beason, & Gilbert, 2002; Winters et al., 1998). Several of these studies (Ladouceur et al.; Lesieur et al., 1991; Rockey et al., 2002; Sommers, 1988; Volberg & Steadman, 1988, 1989; Winters et al.) have also indicated that more male college students suffer from probable pathological and problem gambling. One plausible explanation for this consistent finding was offered by Lesieur et al. (1991). The authors suggested that women use gambling as a means to escape the traumas of adulthood, so their gambling problems may not show up until later in their lives (Lesieur et al., 1991). A second explanation for increased probable problem gambling for males is the popular notion that males in American society are often instilled with a more competitive nature and encouraged to take risks. These sociocultural characteristics can lead to an increased rate of gambling and has been linked to pathological gambling (Ladouceur et al.; Langewisch & Frisch, 1998). Regardless of the explanation, the findings of this study are consistent with similar studies that have shown that gender plays an important role among college students.
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The prevalence of gambling among Greek-affiliated students in the current study is likely due to a variety of factors. The results of this study seem to imply that gambling like alcohol abuse is impacted by the perceptions of one's peers as suggested by the social norms theory. Peer pressure and an enabling environment seem to play a role in the development of problem gambling in Greek-affiliated students. Participants in this study perceived that their friends were more likely than any other group, including family members, to have problems with gambling. This finding supports previous research (Devlin & Peppard, 1996; Frank, 1990) that showed that college students report that friends have the highest rate of problem gambling. Browne and Brown's (1994) research suggested that gambling by parents and friends was a predictor of student gambling. Further, they found that men who have friends who gamble were more likely to gamble more and spend more on lotteries.
Bookmakers have used peer pressure to recruit new gamblers (Layden, 1995). Fraternities may provide the students support and opportunities to gamble. The fraternity house provides a base for members to discuss gambling and to compete against one another to determine the better gambler. They are also sources of positive reinforcement for the individual. A good day at the casino may be recognized by the other members of the organization, which provides the positive reinforcement that some people seek.
The results of this study indicate that the majority of both Greek- and non-Greek-affiliated students gambled between $10 and $100 during the day that they gambled the most. These findings correspond with the findings of Rockey, Beason, Lee, Stewart, and Gilbert (1997) who found that the average amount spent by college students during a visit to a casino destination was $41.55. Similarly, Frank (1990) found that 78.0% of the students surveyed gambled with less than $50. Other studies (Devlin & Peppard, 1996; Ladouceur et al., 1994; Lesieur et al., 1991) reported similar results with respect to average amount spent during one gambling episode.
Despite the fact that the majority of the sample gambled a relatively small amount of money, a statistically significant association was found between the amount of money gambled and Greek-affiliated students. The results of this study suggest that Greek-affiliated students gambled more during one episode of gambling than non-Greek-affiliated students. These findings are further supported when the data are separated according to gender. Interestingly, despite having lower rates of probable pathological and problem gambling, female Greek-affiliated students spent more money per gambling episode than female non-Greek-affiliated students.
Because Greek-affiliated students overall spent more money per gambling episode, family income was analyzed to determine its role in gambling. Although the Greek-affiliated students had the highest average family income, no significant association was found between probable pathological gambling, family income, and Greek affiliation. These results contradict previous findings which suggest that family income was positively correlated with pathological gambling (Ladouceur et al., 1994; Lesieur et al., 1991) and increased gambling activities (Kallick-Kaufman, 1979). On the other hand, a significant association was found between probable problem gambling, family income, and Greek affiliation. The combined results of this study may best align with Frank (1990) who found that income was not a primary factor predicting gambling behavior in college students. Family income may not be a strong predictor of gambling behavior because pathological or problem gamblers will find means to support their addiction.
Implications for Higher Education
The findings from this study will provide awareness to college educators as well as to administrators about another potentially maladaptive behavior that is confronting college students. Slightly more than 80.0% of the students in this study reported gambling and almost 13.0% of Greek-affiliated males were classified as being probable pathological gamblers. An effort needs to be made to warn the college student population, in particular the Greek-affiliated males, of the dangers and risks of gambling. Similar to the efforts of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), who have antigambling campaigns to prevent college athlete gambling, an effort should be made to educate the general student body in hopes to avoid problems thereby assisting retention.
Bailey, Burroughs, Dabit, Hambrick, and Theriot (1997) outlined measures that can be taken by student affairs professionals to address gambling among college students. These measures can easily be adapted to focus on fraternity members. The measures included engaging in informal discussions with students to learn the impact and extent of gambling, strengthening the counseling component to identify addictive problems, and including training for staff on gambling as an addiction (Bailey et al.).
The National Association of Student Personnel Administrators (NASPA) built upon the measures suggested by Bailey et al. (1997). They included measures such as adding gambling questions in student surveys; collecting data about student needs and concerns; integrating gambling behavior information into social norming education; preparing a referral list of off-campus services; attending state, regional, and national gambling treatment/prevention conferences; reviewing current policy regarding gambling behavior; and demonstrating to campus professionals the relationship between gambling and areas for which they are responsible (McClellan et al., 2002). Although these measures are directed toward the university as a whole, they can be easily adapted to focus on fraternity members.
This study was a first step in determining whether Greek-affiliated college students have a significant problem with gambling. Because the results of the research support the existence of key differences and characteristics, it appears that more research is warranted. One recommendation for future research is to measure the prevalence rates of Greek-affiliated gambling across the United States and not just in the Southeast. A longitudinal study to measure the effects of Greek affiliation on the college students' attitudes toward gambling is needed to determine if affiliation does impact the members' attitudes or consequent behavior changes. Because gender was found to impact problem gambling among Greek-affiliated students, additional psychosocial variables such as race should be studied to determine its impact. Finally, studies that include further analysis of the impact of the Greek social structure on the actions and behaviors of the members would also be beneficial in understanding this problem.
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Don Rockey is Assistant Professor of HPER at Coastal Carolina University. Kim Beason and Jim Gilbert are Associate Professors of HESRM at the University of Mississippi. Christine Rockey is an instructor at Coastal Carolina University. Eric Howington is Assistant Professor of Mathematics and Statistics at Coastal Carolina University.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Don Rockey, P.O. Box 261954, Conway, SC 29528; dlrockey@coastal.edu.
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